Convection and Precipitation/Electrification Experiment

Generic-Atmospheric State (Gen-AtmsState) refers to non-specific instruments on a platform that measure atmospheric state parameters. These are typically in situ sensors that measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed and direction. Types of atmospheric state instruments include thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, and anemometers.

The Lower Fuselage (LF) Radar is an airborne radar system mounted on the lower fuselage of the NOAA P-3 aircraft used by the Hurricane Research Division. It measures radar reflectivity, Doppler velocity, and other radar parameters to characterize tropical storms and precipitation. It operates at 5370 MHz with a horizontal beamwidth of 1.1 degrees. The LF Radar has a maximum unambiguous range of 750 km and a pulse repetition frequency of 200 Hz.

Generic-Microphysics Probes (Gen-Microphysics) are non-specific cloud probes on a platform used to measure cloud microphysics. These are typically in situ probes that measure the physical properties of clouds. These measurements can include particle size distribution, droplet growth, cloud optical thickness, liquid water content, droplet concentration, and cloud condensation nuclei.

The Tail Doppler Radar (TDR) is an airborne, vertically scanning, pulse-Doppler X-band radar operated by NOAA. It is installed on the tail of the research aircraft and is typically equipped on NOAA’s P-3 aircraft for hurricane and precipitation research missions. TDR measures radar reflectivity and Doppler wind velocities in the 9315 MHz frequency band. It has a horizontal beam width of 1.35 degrees and a range gate spacing of 150 or 300 meters.

The King Probe is an in situ airborne cloud instrument developed by Warren King (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation) and manufactured by Particle Measuring Systems (PMS) and Droplet Measurement Technologies (DMT). It measures cloud liquid water content (LWC) by detecting the heat released during droplet vaporization. It operates at a constant temperature of approximately 100°C and outputs data at 1 to 10 Hz. The probe is commonly used in studies of cloud microphysics and aircraft icing.

The Forward Scattering Spectrometer Probe (FSSP) is an in situ airborne optical particle counter developed by Particle Measuring Systems, Inc. It determines particle size distribution by measuring the light intensity scattered by individual particles within a cloud. The FSSP detects particles from 0.5 to 47 μm in diameter. It operates at a wavelength of 633 nm and typically samples at 1 Hz.

The 2D-C/P Hydrometeor Imaging Probe (2D-C/P) is an in situ, airborne instrument that captures images of hydrometeors. It records these images by detecting the illuminated or shadowed states of the photodiode array as the hydrometeors' shadows pass over it. 2D-C/P also provides measurements of particle size distribution, cloud droplet concentration, and hydrometeor shape. Typically, 2D-C/P probes have an image resolution of 25 micrometers and can image hydrometeors with diameters up to 1600 micrometers.

The Johnson-Williams Cloud Water Meter (CWM) is an airborne hot-wire probe designed by Johnson-Williams, Inc. The CWM measures the liquid water content (LWC) of clouds by detecting resistivity changes caused by cloud droplets evaporating from an exposed heated wire. It measures LWC from 0 to 6 grams per cubic meter and operates at airspeeds between 50 and 150 meters per second. The device operates on a constant current and typically records data at 2 Hz.

Generic-Atmospheric State (Gen-AtmsState) refers to non-specific instruments on a platform that measure atmospheric state parameters. These are typically in situ sensors that measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed and direction. Types of atmospheric state instruments include thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, and anemometers.

An Electric Field Mill (EFM) is a ground-based and airborne electric field sensor developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). It measures the full vector components of the atmospheric electric field and provides information about the electrical structure within and around storms. EFMs can detect both intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning and operate in large thunderstorm fields (thousands of volts per meter). An EFM typically has a response time of about 10 Hz.

A pyrgeometer is a ground-based or airborne passive radiation sensor that measures downward and upward longwave radiation in the 4-50 μm spectral range. It uses a thermopile sensor to detect changes in resistance or voltage, which are then used to determine longwave radiation. These measurements can be used to calculate the infrared radiation flux. Pyrgeometers are typically used for climatological, meteorological, and agricultural applications.

Generic-Atmospheric State (Gen-AtmsState) refers to non-specific instruments on a platform that measure atmospheric state parameters. These are typically in situ sensors that measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed and direction. Types of atmospheric state instruments include thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, and anemometers.

An Electric Field Mill (EFM) is a ground-based and airborne electric field sensor developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). It measures the full vector components of the atmospheric electric field and provides information about the electrical structure within and around storms. EFMs can detect both intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning and operate in large thunderstorm fields (thousands of volts per meter). An EFM typically has a response time of about 10 Hz.

Generic-Microphysics Probes (Gen-Microphysics) are non-specific cloud probes on a platform used to measure cloud microphysics. These are typically in situ probes that measure the physical properties of clouds. These measurements can include particle size distribution, droplet growth, cloud optical thickness, liquid water content, droplet concentration, and cloud condensation nuclei.

The Multispectral Atmospheric Mapping Sounder (MAMS) is an airborne multispectral scanner developed by modifying NASA’s Thematic Mapping Sensor (TMS). MAMS captures reflected radiances in eight visible/near-infrared (VNIR) bands and thermal emissions in four infrared bands. It was designed to study weather-related phenomena, including storm system structure, cloud-top temperature, and upper-atmospheric water vapor. MAMS operates across 12 channels spanning 0.42-12.56 μm. It has a horizontal resolution of 100 meters and a swath width of approximately 37 kilometers at a flight altitude of 20 kilometers. MAMS scans at a rate of 6.25 Hz.

The Lightning Instrument Package (LIP) is an in situ airborne system that detects electric fields. LIP uses eight electric field mills and a conductivity probe to measure the three-dimensional components of electric fields in thunderstorms surrounding it. LIP has a sampling frequency of 0.02 seconds and an accuracy of 2.5%.

The Advanced Microwave Precipitation Radiometer (AMPR) is an airborne passive microwave radiometer. AMPR provides calibrated brightness temperatures that can be used to determine cloud and precipitation characteristics. It operates across four microwave channels: 10.7, 19.35, 37.1, and 85.5 GHz. These frequencies are sensitive to precipitation, making AMPR well-suited for studying rainfall. Its surface footprint ranges from 640 m (85.5 GHz) to 2.8 km (10.7 GHz).

The Millimeter-Wave Temperature Sounder (MTS) was an airborne microwave radiometer developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). It consisted of two radiometers that measured brightness temperature for precipitation and atmospheric temperature profiling. One radiometer was an eight-channel scanning spectrometer centered on the 118.75 GHz oxygen line. It had a 7.5-degree beamwidth and an integration time of 224 ms per spot, yielding a 0.5 K resolution. The second radiometer was a single-channel nadir-viewing system operating from 52 to 56 GHz with a 10-degree beamwidth. MTS was replaced by the NPOESS Aircraft Sounder Testbed Microwave Radiometer (NAST-M).

The Scanning High-resolution Interferometer Sounder (S-HIS) is an airborne cross-track scanning interferometer developed by the Space Science and Engineering Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. It measures emitted thermal radiation between 3.3 and 18 microns with high spectral resolution. These measurements are used to derive atmospheric profiles of temperature and water vapor under clear-sky conditions. S-HIS has a spatial resolution of 2 km and a swath width of 40 km at an altitude of 20 km at nadir. It operates at a sampling frequency of 0.5 seconds and has an absolute radiance accuracy of 0.2 K.

Generic-Atmospheric State (Gen-AtmsState) refers to non-specific instruments on a platform that measure atmospheric state parameters. These are typically in situ sensors that measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed and direction. Types of atmospheric state instruments include thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, and anemometers.

Generic-Atmospheric State (Gen-AtmsState) refers to non-specific instruments on a platform that measure atmospheric state parameters. These are typically in situ sensors that measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed and direction. Types of atmospheric state instruments include thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, and anemometers.

Generic-Microphysics Probes (Gen-Microphysics) are non-specific cloud probes on a platform used to measure cloud microphysics. These are typically in situ probes that measure the physical properties of clouds. These measurements can include particle size distribution, droplet growth, cloud optical thickness, liquid water content, droplet concentration, and cloud condensation nuclei.

Video cameras capture footage of various phenomena for research. They are used on aircraft to provide continuous views of weather and terrain below the flight path. Video cameras are also employed to verify the aircraft's flight track. Additionally, they are deployed at field sites to monitor changes in vegetation, land cover, clouds, air quality, glaciers, and other Earth science phenomena.

Generic-Atmospheric State (Gen-AtmsState) refers to non-specific instruments on a platform that measure atmospheric state parameters. These are typically in situ sensors that measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed and direction. Types of atmospheric state instruments include thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, and anemometers.

An Electric Field Mill (EFM) is a ground-based and airborne electric field sensor developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). It measures the full vector components of the atmospheric electric field and provides information about the electrical structure within and around storms. EFMs can detect both intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning and operate in large thunderstorm fields (thousands of volts per meter). An EFM typically has a response time of about 10 Hz.

Generic-Microphysics Probes (Gen-Microphysics) are non-specific cloud probes on a platform used to measure cloud microphysics. These are typically in situ probes that measure the physical properties of clouds. These measurements can include particle size distribution, droplet growth, cloud optical thickness, liquid water content, droplet concentration, and cloud condensation nuclei.

Generic-Atmospheric State (Gen-AtmsState) refers to non-specific instruments on a platform that measure atmospheric state parameters. These are typically in situ sensors that measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed and direction. Types of atmospheric state instruments include thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, and anemometers.

An Electric Field Mill (EFM) is a ground-based and airborne electric field sensor developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). It measures the full vector components of the atmospheric electric field and provides information about the electrical structure within and around storms. EFMs can detect both intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning and operate in large thunderstorm fields (thousands of volts per meter). An EFM typically has a response time of about 10 Hz.

Generic-Microphysics Probes (Gen-Microphysics) are non-specific cloud probes on a platform used to measure cloud microphysics. These are typically in situ probes that measure the physical properties of clouds. These measurements can include particle size distribution, droplet growth, cloud optical thickness, liquid water content, droplet concentration, and cloud condensation nuclei.

The Forward Scattering Spectrometer Probe (FSSP) is an in situ airborne optical particle counter developed by Particle Measuring Systems, Inc. It determines particle size distribution by measuring the light intensity scattered by individual particles within a cloud. The FSSP detects particles from 0.5 to 47 μm in diameter. It operates at a wavelength of 633 nm and typically samples at 1 Hz.

The 2D-C/P Hydrometeor Imaging Probe (2D-C/P) is an in situ, airborne instrument that captures images of hydrometeors. It records these images by detecting the illuminated or shadowed states of the photodiode array as the hydrometeors' shadows pass over it. 2D-C/P also provides measurements of particle size distribution, cloud droplet concentration, and hydrometeor shape. Typically, 2D-C/P probes have an image resolution of 25 micrometers and can image hydrometeors with diameters up to 1600 micrometers.

Generic-Atmospheric State (Gen-AtmsState) refers to non-specific instruments on a platform that measure atmospheric state parameters. These are typically in situ sensors that measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed and direction. Types of atmospheric state instruments include thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, and anemometers.

The Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) wind profiler is a ground-based Doppler radar that measures electromagnetic signals to determine wind speed and direction. UHF wind profilers operate in the 300-1000 MHz frequency range. Their high operating frequency enables high-resolution wind measurements within the boundary layer. NOAA operates a network of radar wind profilers as part of the NOAA Profiler Network (NPN).

The Lightning Detection and Ranging (LDAR) system is a ground-based lightning network at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). It comprises seven very high-frequency (VHF) radio receivers that detect radio pulses from lightning. These receivers are arranged in a hexagonal pattern, 6 to 10 km from the central receiver. The LDAR system operates at 66 MHz with a bandwidth of 6 MHz. It has a typical detection range of 100 km and a time resolution of 10 ns. It provides near real-time lightning mapping to support Space Shuttle operations.

Eddy Covariance Flux Towers are in situ micrometeorological surface towers. They are equipped with gas sensors to continuously measure trace gas fluxes between the land surface and the atmosphere. Eddy Covariance Towers are typically used to measure fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and water vapor (H2O). These towers are also equipped with various meteorological sensors to measure air temperature, precipitation, wind, radiation, and soil temperature.

The Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) is a network of high-resolution, S-band radars operated by the National Weather Service (NWS), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the United States Air Force. NEXRAD measures the magnitude of returned energy to provide reflectivity, velocity, and spectrum width observations, which can be processed into mosaic maps of precipitation. NEXRAD radars typically operate with a 0.9-degree beamwidth, 0.25 to 1 km spatial resolution, and a maximum range of 230 to 460 km. Currently, over 160 NEXRAD radars operate across the United States and in some overseas locations.

The Very High Frequency (VHF) Interferometer is a ground-based broadband interferometer system. It detects lightning by measuring the radio-frequency signals emitted by lightning strikes. The VHF Interferometer system consists of 3 VHF antennas and 1 fast antenna. It operates across the 30-300 MHz frequency band.

An Electric Field Mill (EFM) is a ground-based and airborne electric field sensor developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). It measures the full vector components of the atmospheric electric field and provides information about the electrical structure within and around storms. EFMs can detect both intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning and operate in large thunderstorm fields (thousands of volts per meter). An EFM typically has a response time of about 10 Hz.

S-band radars are ground-based or shipborne radars that operate in the 2-4 GHz frequency range. They provide measurements of radar reflectivity, Doppler velocity, and other radar parameters to characterize precipitation and clouds. They are not easily attenuated, making them useful for near- and far-range weather observations.

X-band radars are ground-based radars operating in the 8-12 GHz frequency range. They measure radar reflectivity, Doppler velocity, and other parameters to characterize precipitation and clouds. Due to their shorter wavelength, X-band radars are more sensitive and can detect smaller particles, making them useful for studying light precipitation and cloud development.

C-band radars operate in the 4-8 GHz frequency range. They provide measurements of radar reflectivity, Doppler velocity, and other parameters to characterize precipitation and clouds. C-band radars are typically used for short-range weather observations because they are more prone to attenuation.

Radiosondes are balloon-borne instrument packages that collect profiles of pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind. These sensors are connected to a radio transmitter that sends the measurements to a ground receiver, typically operating in the 400-406 MHz range. They typically provide measurements every 1-6 seconds, depending on the radiosonde type and manufacturer. Radiosondes are used for weather forecasting, ground-truthing satellite data, atmospheric research, and as input for weather prediction models.